The Mexica conducted diplomacy with a wide range of peoples, including the independent kingdoms of the Tarascans and the Tlaxcalans, the subject provinces of the empire, and the other two members of the Triple Alliance. The diplomatic system was elaborate, with formal protocols for the reception of envoys, the exchange of gifts, and the negotiation of treaties. The Mexica were skilled diplomats, and they used a combination of threats, promises, and gifts to maintain their empire. The most famous diplomatic event in Mexica history was the meeting between Moctezuma II and Hernán Cortés in 1519, an encounter that was recorded by both Spanish and indigenous sources and that has been analyzed in countless books and articles.
The Foundations of Mexica Diplomacy
The Mexica diplomatic system was based on a combination of force, religion, and political calculation. The Mexica believed that their imperial ambitions were divinely sanctioned, and that the gods had given them the right to rule the world. The Mexica also believed that diplomacy was a continuation of war by other means, and that the use of force was a normal and legitimate part of international relations. The Mexica were willing to use force when necessary, but they preferred to achieve their goals through negotiation, persuasion, and the threat of force.
The Mexica had a sophisticated system of diplomatic protocol, with formal rules for the reception of envoys, the exchange of gifts, and the negotiation of treaties. The envoys were drawn from the nobility, and they were trained in the art of diplomacy. The most skilled envoys were the pochteca, the long-distance merchants, who served as the principal envoys of the Mexica state in their dealings with foreign powers.
The Triple Alliance
The Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan was the most important diplomatic relationship of the Mexica state. The alliance was formed in 1428, when the three city-states agreed to overthrow the Tepanec Empire of Azcapotzalco and to share the costs and benefits of imperial expansion. The alliance was to be perpetual, and the three cities were to consult each other on matters of war and peace.
The alliance was governed by a series of treaties, which specified the rights and obligations of the three members. The treaties specified the division of the tribute from future conquests, with Tenochtitlan receiving two-fifths, Texcoco two-fifths, and Tlacopan one-fifth. The treaties also specified the obligations of mutual defense, with each member required to come to the aid of the others in case of attack. The treaties were reaffirmed on a regular basis, and the rulers of the three cities would meet periodically to discuss the affairs of the alliance.
The internal politics of the alliance were complex and sometimes tense. The Mexica of Tenochtitlan, as the dominant partner, were the most aggressive in expanding the empire and in extracting tribute from the subject provinces. Texcoco, with its own imperial ambitions and its own tradition of cultural and intellectual achievement, often chafed under Mexica dominance. Tlacopan, the smallest and most subordinate, depended on the other two for its survival. Despite these tensions, the alliance held together for nearly a century, and it allowed the three city-states to dominate central Mexico so that none could have achieved alone.
Relations with the Independent Kingdoms
The Mexica had diplomatic relations with several independent kingdoms that were not part of the empire. The most important of these were the Tarascan Empire of Michoacán, to the west, and the Tlaxcalan Republic, to the east. The Mexica had a long history of conflict with both kingdoms, and they were never able to incorporate them into the empire. The Tarascans and the Tlaxcalans maintained their independence throughout the imperial period, and they were the principal enemies of the Mexica state.
The relations with the Tarascans were particularly complex. The Tarascans had a sophisticated state of their own, with a capital at Tzintzuntzan, and they had a military that was at least the equal of the Mexica. The Mexica attempted to conquer the Tarascan Empire on several occasions, but they were never successful. The Tarascans were a constant threat to the western frontier of the Mexica empire, and the Mexica maintained a large military force in the region to deter Tarascan attacks.
Relations with the Tlaxcalans were even more complex. Defiantly independent for centuries, the Tlaxcalans had refused to acknowledge Mexica supremacy, and the Mexica had never managed to bring them to heel. The two states fought a long series of flower wars for the purpose of capturing prisoners for sacrifice, and the Tlaxcalans remained a constant threat to the eastern frontier of the empire — until they became the principal allies of the Spanish in the conquest of the Mexica state.
Marriage Alliances
The Mexica used marriage alliances as a tool of diplomacy, and they married the daughters of the ruling family to the sons of allied and subject rulers. The system of marriage alliances shaped the Mexica imperial system, and it was used to bind the subject provinces to the imperial center. The marriages were arranged by the families, and the bride and groom were expected to enter into the union with the consent of their parents. The marriages were also a religious obligation, and the couples were required to perform the rituals of marriage and to honor the gods of marriage.
The marriage alliances were particularly important in the Triple Alliance. The rulers of the three cities intermarried with each other, and the marriages helped to cement the alliance and to ensure the loyalty of the partners. The marriage alliances were also important in the relations with the subject provinces, and the Mexica would often marry the daughters of the local rulers to the sons of the Mexica nobility. The children of these marriages were raised in the Mexica tradition, and they were given important positions in the Mexica state.
The Reception of Envoys
The Mexica had elaborate protocols for the reception of envoys, and the ceremonies were designed to impress the envoys with the power and the wealth of the Mexica state. The envoys were received at the boundary of the Mexica territory by a delegation of Mexica officials, and they were escorted to Tenochtitlan by a series of relays. The envoys were housed in special quarters, and they were entertained with feasts, dances, and the giving of gifts.
The most important ceremonies were reserved for the reception of the rulers of the allied and subject states. The rulers were received by the Tlatoani in person, and they were seated on a raised platform in the great hall of the palace. The rulers were entertained with elaborate feasts, and they were given gifts of gold, feathers, and other luxury items. The rulers were also invited to participate in the religious ceremonies, and they were given places of honor in the Templo Mayor.
The Negotiation of Treaties
The Mexica had a sophisticated system for the negotiation of treaties, and the treaties were recorded in the codices for posterity. The treaties specified the rights and obligations of the parties, the division of the tribute, the obligations of mutual defense, and the duration of the agreement. The treaties were negotiated by the envoys, and they were ratified by the Tlatoani and the council.
The Mexica had a particular skill in the negotiation of treaties, and they used a combination of persuasion, threats, and gifts to achieve their goals. The Mexica were willing to make concessions when necessary, but they were also willing to use force when persuasion failed. The Mexica also had a particular skill in the interpretation of treaties, and they often interpreted the treaties in ways that favored the Mexica state.
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See also:
- How did Aztec emperors communicate with other rulers? — the envoys
- What were flowers and smokes of peace in Aztec diplomacy? — the symbolic exchanges
- How did the Aztec Empire use marriage alliances? — the marriage system
- The Triple Alliance and Imperial Expansion — the alliance
- Provincial Administration and Tributary States — the provincial relations
- Aztec Empire and Political Structure — the broader context